Male Gaze Theory by Laura Mulvey

The 'Male Gaze' theory is a concept that was first put forward by a feminist film critic named Laura Mulvey in 1975. The theory refers to the ways in which films are structured around a male viewer and states that in film, audiences are forced to see through the eyes of a heterosexual male. 


The male gaze consists of three different types of gaze: 

• that of the person behind the camera
• that of the characters within the representation or the film itself
• that of the audience 

Mulvey's theory suggests that the male gaze denies women of an identity and dehumanises them; it gives them the status of objects to be desired by men because of their appearance. It also suggests that more often than not, women find themselves viewing a film from a secondary perspective (this being the perspective of a heterosexual man). Often a female character in a film has no real importance, but only exists in relation to a male character. Women in film are usually viewed as an erotic object for both the characters within the film and the audience who is watching the film, almost assuming that the audience is entirely made up of heterosexual males. 


In the 1975 essay 'Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema', Mulvey discusses the idea of 'scopophilia', which literally means 'pleasure through looking' or 'love of watching'. 
Voyeurism is a synonym for scopophilia and derives from sexual gratification from observing others from a distance. Film-making and film-viewing have been seen as voyeuristic activities for a long time; the audience sits, typically in a dark room, and observes the activities of others who appear to be unaware of the fact that they are being watched. 
Sigmund Freud, who came up with the idea of scopophilia, reinforces Mulvey's theory, suggesting that from babyhood, we have a natural tendency to fix our gaze upon objects. He argues that although we grow and become more able to control what we observe, it never completely diminishes. 

Technically, there are elements in film that significantly enhance the male gaze. For example: fragmentation, slow-motion, close-ups and lighting. Often, films are edited in such a way that we get shots of the woman or 'sexual object' and the person viewing them, further highlighting the male gaze by showing us how other males react to them. In regards to mise-en-scene and visual elements, the female subject is often seen wearing some form of tight clothing or maybe even no clothing at all, with an analogy between machinery, vehicles, food or sexual objects - this creates a suggestion of ownership over women. It compares the female to an object, like a car, that can be owned. 

      

Example of the male gaze in film

The male gaze is evident in the opening scene of the third instalment of the Transformers films. The film opens with a close up shot of Rosie Huntingdon-Whitely, who plays the female lead and also a Victoria Secret model (well-known for being thin, attractive etc), as she climbs the stairs. The camera follows her barely covered behind closely as she makes her way up the stairs, and then the camera cuts to various other parts of her body, panning down her bare legs and feet and then back up until the camera reaches her torso. The fact that the audience do not even see her face before they see these parts of her body implies that her identity isn't even particularly important,it dehumanises her; she is just a sexualised object to look at and admire. 

Throughout the length of the film, there are countless shots that linger over her behind, her lips, her breasts and her legs. She is often viewed from below and is dressed in tight and revealing clothing (short skirts, tight dresses, high heels) which is clearly for voyeurism purposes and to gain scopophilia.

Not only is she intended to be viewed as a sexual object by the camera and audience, but also by the characters throughout the film. In one scene, one of the transformers (not even a human being) is scene looking up her skirt and rummaging through her underwear drawer. In another scene, John Malkowitz' character is seen going out of his way to look at her behind.

References:

• http://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/06/transformers-3-sour-sexist-and-salivary/241305/
• http://www.karanovic.org/courses/mca008/archives/1487

The French New Wave Essay

A new wave is a movement that is best described as breaking traditional ideas. New waves generally take place at a time of great change in a community and in this essay I am going to be exploring the French New Wave or 'Nouvelle Vague'. The French New Wave started in the late 1950s and early 1960s and was born out of the dissatisfaction of many young and new filmmakers and critics felt towards traditional French cinema, which they believed was more about literature than it was about cinema. With an emphasis on creating new cinematic styles and using a fresh approach in regards to storytelling, the pioneers of the French New Wave aimed to rebel against traditional French cinema. Critics such as those that worked on Cahiers Du Cinema, believed that it would be beneficial to develop an auter cinema in which filmmakers could express their own personal styles and visions. They aimed to create films that reflected 'real life'; films that were raw and explored challenging topics that were looked over in traditional cinema.  These critics wanted to break the constraints of conventional cinema and were inspired by another film critics named Alexandre Astruc, whose 'camera-stylo theory' argued that 'filmmakers should make use of their equipment spontaneously, flexibly and personally, as a writer uses a pen'. (Strerrit 1999) Through the experimentation of different cinematic techniques, they began to apply their personal artistic values in their films as auteurs. Throughout my investigation of the French New Wave, I will be analysing the work of Jean-Luc Godard, a pioneer of the Nouvelle Vague movement, and in order to gain a better understanding of the social context surrounding the French New Wave,  I will be researching the societal issues of the time as well as critically analysing three films by Godard. The three films I will be looking at are: Vivre Sa Vie (My life to live) , Une Femme Est Une Femme (A woman is a woman) and Les Mepris (Contempt). 

The 1950s and 60s in France was a defining period for French Cinema, with the people of France having just overcome the trauma of the second world war which had lasted for six long years. However, the Cold War was taking place and there was a considerable amount of tension between the East and West. Despite this, a reconstruction process had begun; the people of France had started to rebuild their economies and political/social subcultures in society. A revolution had begun; after years and years of rationing, shortages, tension and political outrage, France was finally getting back up on its feet. Technological innovation brought around enormous change in societyy, making consumer goods such a cars, televisions and the like more affordable for the general public. Black and White films were a thing of the past, and wide screen formatting was in use  - it was a new Golden age for France and for French Cinema. (internationalschoolhistory.net 2015)

Jean-Luc Godard, was born in the 1930s and began his career in film-making when he co-founded Gazette du Cinema in 1950, which was a short-lived film journal. He later joined Cahiers Du Cinema, where he would find himself writing film critiques alongside the likes of Francois Truffaut, Eric Rohmer and Claude Chabrol; all of which would become vital figures in the beginning of the French New Wave movement (Lanzoni 2002). Godard was one of the first of the young critics to published in Cahiers Du Cinema, with the January 1952 issue featuring his review of an American film by Rudolph Mate named 'No Sad Songs for Me'. He began his filmmaking career shortly after joining Cahiers, whilst also assisting other filmmakers  like Rohmer. Godard's films were often seen as being about the presentation of a narrative, rather than the narrative itself due to his emphasis on technique. Many of films digressed from the main storyline or followed a completely non-linear structure. His first feature film 'Breathless' was possibly considered his most ground-breaking film and incorporated many distinct features from the 'New Wave style'. He employed techniques such as jump cuts, breaking eye-line match rules and 180 degree rules, as well as taking several elements from popular culture, particularly film noir. Godard is considered to be what is called an 'auteur', which generally speaking means that he was a director that influences his films so much that he is considered to be their author and the creative force behind them. 

Godard first saw actress Anna Karina in an advert for Palmolive. He contacted her straight away about a small part in his famous 'Breathless', however, she turned the role down as soon as she found out it would involve nudity. She agreed to take the lead role in his next film and they soon started a relationship with each other which would later be used as inspiration in some of his films. However, the first year of their relationship was the happiest and their relationship became more and more strained as time went on. Karina's co-star in A Woman is a Woman spoke about their relationship on-set, saying  "They tore each other apart, argued, loved each other, hated each other, screamed at each other". Things became worse when Karina became pregnant. The couple got married, however, Karina experienced a miscarriage which damaged her health considerably and Godard found it difficult to cope, leaving her for several weeks. She then had an affair with a co-star from another film she was working on, and decided that she wanted to marry him and divorce Godard, which subsequently resulted in her attempting suicide. Despite this, Godard and Karina reconciled and continued working on films together until  even after their divorce in December 1964. Their last film together was 'Made in the USA 'which was produced in 1966 and it is reported that the atmosphere on set when the couple were together was very unpleasant, with Godard often seen shouting at Karina. He once again used the narrative of the film to explore the relationship he once had with her. Although this would be the last time they worked together, Karina said in an interview many years later 'He was and will remain the greatest love of my life'.


The first film I looked at was the 1962 Vivre Sa Vie (My Life to Live), which follows the life of a young woman named Nana, who dreams of becoming an actress but instead is stuck working as a shop assistant with a husband and child that she is unhappy with. She leaves this life behind in pursuit of her dream career and independence, however, ends up becoming a prostitute and in fact, becomes more and more dependent on others (particularly men), being sold by one pimp to another until eventually, she is involved in a tragic murder. Throughout Vivre Sa Vie, Godard employs various unconventional techniques and methods to excite the audience. Godard liked the make the audience constantly aware of the fact that they are watching a film, and so Vivre Sa Vie was shot on the streets of Paris and the locations used by him were not closed off from the general public. As a result of this, the general public can often be seen looking at the camera, the actors and the crew with intrigue. Looking back on his film 'Breathless', he felt as though he had moved the camera far too much when filming. He decided that for this film, he would use heavier equipment which was not as easy to move around, he would light scenes correctly and capture audio at the time of filming rather than dubbing over in post-production. (newwavefilm.com 2015) The narrative of the film is split into twelve chapters (tableaux), each listing what and who we are about to see in the following scenes. The story  is non-linear; elements  are missing and mixed up and it is almost impossible to fill the gaps in with the information provided within the film. Here, Godards intention was for the story to be as if Nana were recalling each scene like a memory. It has an overarching plot, however it lacks cohesion, much like ones memory. As well as presenting the narrative in a unusual way, Godard experiments with various techniques throughout the film. There are lots of long takes, many of which last three minutes and over which would not be so long if the film came from a more traditional cinematographer, as they are often uncomfortable or make the audience lose interest. The first chapter's title screen reads ' Tableau one: A bistro - Nana wants to leave Paul - pinball' . The first descriptor tells us the number of the chapter, then the second tells us the location in which the scene is set. The third descriptor tells us about how Nana is feeling, and finally it tells us about an object of importance. Interestingly, the way that the last three descriptors are arranged vary throughout the film depending on what Godard wants the audience to view as important. For example, in chapter nine, the title reads simply 'Tableau nine: A young man - Nana wonders if she is happy'. He wants the focus to be completely on the young man and on Nana's feelings; everything else is insignificant in comparison.
After the title sequence, the opening scene sees Nana having a conversation with her husband Paul in a cafe but unlike in a conventional film, we cannot see the two characters faces as they talk until the moment at which they decide to separate. This is a theme that continues throughout the rest of the film, excluding one chapter; in the scene following the chapter title, we cannot see the entirety of any characters faces. However, in chapter ten we can see the entirety on Nana's face although it is not a close-up like in the other scenes, but a medium-long shot. This is when Nana finally has a job and things are starting to look up Breaking free of the formal traditions of cinema was a key feature of new wave cinema and can be seen as the contextual counter culture. 

When analysing the editing used in the film, it is apparent that Godard's aim was to in fact use as few cuts as possible which is highlighted in the opening scenes of the film, where Nana and Paul are in the bistro together. The camera is completely static until it is Paul's turn to talk, where the focus is shifted to the back of his head with a cut. A few minutes later, when the location changes to the record store that Nana works in, the camera follows the action rather than cutting to get a better point of view. The French New Wave was created by new and upcoming cinematographers who were often on a limited budget and had to make do with what they had. The lack of editing throughout the film immerses the audience into Nana's life, almost in a documentary style. The only thing that highlights the editing in the film is in chapter six where a series of Godard's famous jump cuts are utilised. During this scene, the camera pans right however a small cut takes place with each fire of the machine gun. Godard, being the auter he is described as by many, is almost paying homage to himself by using these jump cuts like he did in 'Breathless'.



Godard's first cinemascope and colour film was his 1961 release 'Une Femme Est Une Femme', which is a musical comedy that follows the story of a young woman named Angela (played by Anna Karina) who desperately wants to have a baby, however, her husband Emile does not feel ready to do so. His best friend, Alfred is also in love with Angela, and throughout the film pursues a relationship with her. After Angela and Emile have an argument which results in them not talking to each other, she gives in to Alfred and sleeps with him. Emile sees that his wife will do anything to have a baby and reconciles with her so that he might have a chance to be a father. In regards to context, the narrative is very similar to Godard's real life and his personal relationship with Karina, who at the time of production became pregnant. The couple were married in March 1961. Roger Ebert suggested that the parallels were not just between the film’s characters and that of the Odyssey, but also with Godard: ‘it is just as tempting to see the frustrated screenwriter as Godard,; the woman as Godard’s wife, Anna Karina, and the producer as a cross between Joseph E Levine and Carlo Ponti, who were both attached to the project’3  (Roger Ebert, netribution.co.uk 2015) 

A Woman is a Woman is a very self-conscious film, much like Le Mepris. At the very beginning we hear a woman's voice shout ''Lights, Camera, Action!'', which immediately highlights the fact that we are watching a film. Throughout, the actors constantly acknowledge the audience, ensuring that they do not forget that they are watching a film and not real life, as well as Belmondo winking at the camera. Godard also inserts references to other films, particularly those of friend from Cahiers Du Cinema, Francois Truffaut, in order to destroy the line between film and reality.  Actors from other New Wave films make cameo appearances during the film, for example: Jeanne Moreau and Marie Dubois from Jules et Jim (1962).

The film was shot in just five weeks, and the actors wore their own clothes. This was common in the Nouvelle Vague, as many filmmakers had low budgets and little time, and many of the actors used were not professionals. Godard had originally planned to shoot the film in an apartment that belonged to an elderly couple, however they changed their minds and a set had to be built in a studio instead. This film was the first of Godard's films to have the sound recorded directly, which explains why in some scenes the crew can be heard. Throughout the film, Godard experiments with the use of sound, particularly with the use of non-diegetic sound, often drifting from non-diegetic to diegetic and vice-versa. In the first scene, Angela is at a bar and non-diegetic music is playing. The sound then switches to diegetic and you can hear the man beside her put his glass down on the bar before the audio switches to non-diegetic music again. 

Le Mepris (Contempt) was made in 1963 and is a self-reflexive film, much like Une Femme Est Une Femme, highlights the difference between film and reality. The narrative follows the disintegration of the relationship between the disillusioned wife (Camille) of a screen writer (Paul) who gets roped into a project with an American film producer (Jeremiah). This storyline, like several of Godard's other films, echoes the breakdown of Godard's marriage with his wife, Karina. In fact, cinematographer Raoul Coutard referred to Le Mepris as 'a letter to Godard's wife' (Raoul Coutard, Carleton 2015). Throughout his film-making career, Godard was fascinated with exploring the ways in which women interact with relationships as femme fatales. In Breathless, he looks at how women betray, in Pierrot Le Fou he looks at how women run away and in Contempt, he looks at the way in which women become faithless. However, what makes Contempt different is how Godard emphasises the fact that a man may be at fault for the loss of a woman's love. (Philip Loptate 1997)


Similar to Une Femme Est Une Femme, throughout Le Mepris, Godard illustrates the fact that he is making a film. In the opening scene of the film, he destroys the line between reality and film, as the dolly tracks and camera crew are clearly visible as the actors make their way across the set. This is similar to the way in which he breaks the 'fourth wall' rule in Une Femme Est Une Femme, where he gets the characters to address the audience and the camera, although it is slightly more subtle to a passive audience. In terms of new wave sensibilities, this provides another break with formal structures and traditions of conventional cinema and highlights a radical change approach that the nouvelle vague introduced. In the opening scene of the film, Bardot's body is the main focus. "Ms. Bardot’s body, in that first scene, and Capri, in the concluding scenes, are the natural world that nobody in this movie seems quite capable of harmonizing with, or of seeing, as entirely, irreducibly real, the way Homer did. And it isn’t, of course. As “Contempt” does not allow us to forget, Lang is shooting a movie, and we in the audience are watching one, and here, as in every other movie ever made, we gaze, like Odysseus in this film’s gorgeous final shot, at a reality that’s a projection of our own desires, an Ithaca turned hazy by artifice and distance." (Terrance Rafferty 2008)

The female lead in played by arguably the most iconic actress at the time, Brigitte Bardot. She was very much a sex symbol during the 60s and as result of this, Godard was instructed to include a set number of nude shots of her to attract an audience. Although Godard does include various shots of Bardot's pouting lips, her curves and her bathing or laying around in no clothes, he does so in a way that makes the audience aware of sexual objectification. For example, in the opening scene, a completely unclothed Camille and her husband Paul are laying in bed, as she talks about the various body parts that the heterosexual males that the scene was constructed for would gain scopophilia from, she reminds us that she is aware that she is being looked at and that our view isn't going unnoticed. In this scene, Godard also uses a colour filter. It begins on red, then turned white, and then finally goes blue. Nothing in the narrative of the scene suggests a reason for this tricolour filter, however, Godard uses it to again, interrupt the shot and make the audience aware that they are watching a film.

Godard famously said 'A movie should a beginning, middle and an end, though not necessarily in that order' (Phillip Loptate 1997) Despite this statement, the narrative in Contempt, unlike many of Godard's films, is linear and has clear beginning, middle and end. However, a large section of the film is made up of a scene in which Camille and Paul have an argument where we can see their relationship disintegrate. This scene, being over half an hour long, would be deemed excessively long in traditional cinema, however, in the French New Wave movement it was commonplace to include extremely long scenes or long takes and in this case it is a poignant part of the film. Another interesting thing to note about the structure of the film is that Godard employs the use of flashbacks via post-production editing, for example: when Camille is in Prokosch's garden and reminisces about the day she's had.

In conclusion, Godard's films, much like many other new wave filmmakers', reflected his own personal experiences in life and focussed specifically on his relationship with his wife and muse, Anna Karina. It is also apparent that Godard preferred for his audience to be aware of the fact that his films were not reality, despite the fact that his storylines often echoed and explored his own reality. 

It is clear that his films, as well as the films of many other New Wave filmmakers had a massive impact on society and the audiences who watched them. The French New Wave was very much inspired by producers such as Renoir and critics such as Alexandre Astruc who emphasised the importance of making films personal, using small film crews and being spontaneous, and then the New Wave filmmakers went on to inspire and influence more modern filmmakers and directors such as Quentin Tarantino who made use of their new techniques such as jump-cuts, long takes, using colour filters and drifting from non-diegetic to diegetic sound. Therefore, it is obvious that the French New Wave movement influenced and changed cinematography and film making forever by introducing a new way of communicating a story and allowing filmmakers the freedom to experiment.

References:

• Contempt (Le Mepris). 1963. Jean-Luc Godard. France. Les Films Concordia, Rome Paris Films, Compagnia Cinematografica.
• My Life To Live (Vivre Sa Vie). 1962. Jean-Luc Godard. France. Les Filmes de la Pleiade, Pathe Consortium Cinema. 
• A woman is a woman (Une femme best une femme). 1961. Jean-Luc Godard. France. Euro International Film, Rome Paris Film.
• Lanzoni, Remi Fournier. French Cinema: From Its Beginnings to the Present. New York: Continuum, 2002.
• Luzi, Evan. 'The French New Wave: A Cinematic Revolution'. The Black and Blue. 2010. Web. 12 Nov. 2015.
• French, Phillip. 'Vivre Sa Vie Review - Quintessential Soul-Searching from Godard'. The Guardian. 2015. Web. 12 Nov 2015. 
• Sterrit, David. The Films of Jean Luc Godard. Cambridge, UK. Cambridge University Press, 1999. Print.
• http://www.escapistmagazine.com/forums/read/326.396947-Vivre-sa-vie-Living-and-Loving-the-Life 
• Newwavefilm.com,. 'VIVRE SA VIE (My Life To Live) - Jean-Luc Godard'. N.p., 2015. Web. 16 Nov. 2015.
• the godard experience. 2015. the godard experience. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.carleton.edu/curricular/MEDA/classes/media110/Friesema/contempt.html. [Accessed 23 November 2015
• International School History - Western Europe 1939-2000 - Spain, Germany and Britain. 2015. International School History - Western Europe 1939-2000 - Spain, Germany and Britain. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.internationalschoolhistory.net/western_europe/europe/rebuilding_europe.htm. [Accessed 23 November 2015].
• A short history of French cinema | Film | The Guardian. 2015. A short history of French cinema | Film | The Guardian. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/film/2011/mar/22/french-cinema-short-history. [Accessed 23 November 2015]

• The Escapist : Forums : User Reviews : Vivre sa vie: Living and Loving the Life. 2015. The Escapist : Forums : User Reviews : Vivre sa vie: Living and Loving the Life. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.escapistmagazine.com/forums/read/326.396947-Vivre-sa-vie-Living-and-Loving-the-Life. [Accessed 22 November 2015].
• Netribution > Features > Essays > Cinephilia of Le Mepris. 2015. Netribution > Features > Essays > Cinephilia of Le Mepris. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.netribution.co.uk/features/essays/le_mepris.html. [Accessed 23 November 2015].
•  A Woman Is a Woman - From the Current - The Criterion Collection . 2015. A Woman Is a Woman - From the Current - The Criterion Collection . [ONLINE] Available at: https://www.criterion.com/current/posts/330-a-woman-is-a-woman. [Accessed 01 December 2015].
• Lopate, Phillip. 'Brilliance And Bardot, All In One'. The New York Times 1997. Web. 1 Dec. 2015.
•  Rafferty, Terrence. 'Man, Godard And Nature (And Bardot, Too)'. The New York Times 2008. Web. 1 Dec. 2015.

New Wave Brief

After studying the French New Wave and looking at Jean-Luc Godard's films, I have decided that for my own personal new wave film, I am going to capture the everyday and the ordinary, as this is a common theme in the movement and particularly in Godard's work. I plan to capture a day in the life of a person that I find particularly interesting and that I am close to, in the way that Godard used actors and actresses that he was familiar with or found interesting (the actress that he used in the vast majority of his early films, Anna Karina, was his wife for several years). My film is going to be fairly short, around 5 minutes long, and will follow an non-linear narrative about a person exploring a place that they've never visited before. My film is going to take place in a small seaside town called Bridlington, which is a place that I myself have never visited before so the footage that I take whilst there will be spontaneous and candid, which will make for a more interesting film. I intend to draw inspiration from the three films that I analysed for my contextual study, taking into careful consideration the camera techniques that are used and the rules that are purposely broken in order to make a visually exciting film. 

I plan to use predominantly diegetic sound, which is sound whose source is visible on screen, however I may add some non-diegetic music at various points in the film as Godard does in Une Femme Est Une Femme. I also intend to experiment with using both a tripod and with hand held camera movement, and incorporate some very long takes, sometimes lasting minutes, which Godard was fond of doing. My light source will be natural ambient light and therefore, will differ from high key to low key depending on the time of day at which I film. I have chosen natural lighting specifically because it echoes the idea of realism behind the new wave movement which is something that I hope to recreate in my own film.

In regards to editing the clips that will make up my new wave film, I am going to use a lot of jump cuts. This is because Godard was well-known for his extensive use of jump-cuts, particularly in his film 'Breathless'. I may also repeat some of the footage throughout the film, focussing specifically on important aspects of the film to emphasise their significance. 

When considering the equipment I am going to use, I need to think about what kind of lens would best suit the footage I want to make. I am going to be shooting on a Canon EOS 700D camera. In addition to using my DSLR camera, I may also use my phone camera to film some footage, as I'll be attending a concert whilst in Bridlington and will be unable to take my 700D in with me. I think that this may create an interesting contrast to the better quality DSLR images, and may make the jump cuts look more effective.

In regards to technical settings, I plan to make sure that all of my footage is correctly exposed; playing close attention to the relationship between ISO, shutter speed and aperture. I'm hoping to achieve footage with a relatively low ISO to avoid the presence of grain and noise, a shutter speed of 1/50 s to correspond with my frames per second (1/24) and a variety of different apertures to add depth to my footage. In scenes where I might show a landscape setting or a location where there are lots of people or subjects to look at, I will use a wide depth of field and in scenes where I will be filming close ups of people or objects I will use a shallower depth of field to direct the focus onto that specific subject. 

French Cinema - Lanzoni (Auter Theory)

Vivre Sa Vie Editing Video